English & Hindi Grammar Notes
ENGLISH & HINDI GRAMMAR NOTES
Complete Grammar Guide - Parts of Speech, Tenses, Voice, Narration, Hindi Vyakaran
Master English and Hindi Grammar! Complete notes covering: Parts of Speech (Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection). All 12 English Tenses with formulas and examples. Active-Passive Voice conversion rules. Direct-Indirect Speech narration changes. Sentence structure and types. Punctuation rules. Hindi Vyakaran: Sangya (संज्ञा), Sarvanam (सर्वनाम), Visheshan (विशेषण), Kriya (क्रिया), Ling (लिंग), Vachan (वचन), Karak (कारक), Samas (समास), Alankar (अलंकार). Articles (a, an, the) usage. Subject-Verb agreement. Common grammar mistakes to avoid. Exam-focused tips for competitive exams!
ENGLISH GRAMMAR - PARTS OF SPEECH
8 types of words that form complete sentences
1. Noun (संज्ञा) - Naming Words
Definition & Types
Noun = Name of person, place, thing, or idea. "The word that names something."
1. Proper Noun (व्यक्तिवाचक संज्ञा): Specific names (Always capital letter). Examples: Rahul, India, Monday, January, Taj Mahal, Ganges River. Rule: First letter ALWAYS capital!
2. Common Noun (जातिवाचक संज्ञा): General names (Common category). Examples: boy, city, day, month, building, river. Rule: Small letter (unless starting sentence).
3. Collective Noun (समूहवाचक संज्ञा): Group of things/people. Examples: team, family, crowd, committee, flock (birds), herd (animals), bunch (flowers). Usage: Can be singular OR plural! "The team is playing" OR "The team are arguing among themselves."
4. Abstract Noun (भाववाचक संज्ञा): Ideas, qualities, emotions (Cannot touch/see). Examples: love, honesty, happiness, beauty, childhood, wisdom, freedom. Formation: Often from adjectives/verbs: happy → happiness, kind → kindness, child → childhood.
5. Material Noun (द्रव्यवाचक संज्ञा): Substances/materials. Examples: gold, water, milk, wood, cotton, rice, sugar. Rule: Usually uncountable (No plural form).
Countable vs Uncountable Nouns
Can count (1, 2, 3...). Have singular & plural forms. Examples: book/books, pen/pens, apple/apples. Use: a/an with singular. Use: many, few, a few, several with plural.
Uncountable Nouns (अगिनती संज्ञा):Cannot count individually. NO plural form. Examples: water, milk, rice, sugar, information, advice, furniture. Use: much, little, a little, some. NEVER use: a/an directly! Wrong: "a water" ✗ Right: "a glass of water" ✓
Noun Number - Singular to Plural Rules
Rule 1: Add 's' - book → books, pen → pens, cat → cats.
Rule 2: Add 'es' after s, x, z, ch, sh - bus → buses, box → boxes, dish → dishes, watch → watches.
Rule 3: Ending in consonant + y → change y to ies - baby → babies, city → cities, story → stories. Exception: If vowel + y → just add s: boy → boys, key → keys.
Rule 4: Ending in f/fe → change to ves - knife → knives, leaf → leaves, wife → wives. Exception: Some add just s: roof → roofs, chief → chiefs.
Rule 5: Ending in o → Add es OR s - potato → potatoes, tomato → tomatoes, hero → heroes. BUT: photo → photos, piano → pianos.
Irregular Plurals: man → men, woman → women, child → children, tooth → teeth, foot → feet, mouse → mice, ox → oxen, goose → geese.
Same Singular & Plural: sheep → sheep, deer → deer, fish → fish, aircraft → aircraft.
Noun Gender (लि��ग)
| Masculine (पुल्लिंग) | Feminine (स्त्रीलिंग) | Common Gender | Neuter Gender |
|---|---|---|---|
| boy, man, father, king, actor, hero, waiter | girl, woman, mother, queen, actress, heroine, waitress | teacher, student, doctor, baby, friend | book, pen, table (non-living things) |
2. Pronoun (सर्वनाम) - Words Used Instead of Nouns
Why Use Pronouns?
To avoid repetition! Without pronoun: "Rahul is a student. Rahul goes to school. Rahul studies hard." With pronoun: "Rahul is a student. He goes to school. He studies hard." ✓
1. Personal Pronouns (व्यक्तिवाचक सर्वनाम): Refer to persons. First Person: I, we, me, us (Speaker). Second Person: you (Listener). Third Person: he, she, it, they, him, her, them (Others).
2. Possessive Pronouns (अधिकार सूचक): Show ownership. Examples: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs. Usage: "This book is mine" (NOT "This book is my" ✗).
3. Reflexive Pronouns (निजवाचक): Refer back to subject. myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. Usage: "I hurt myself" (Subject and object same person).
4. Demonstrative Pronouns (संकेतवाचक): Point to something. this, that (singular), these, those (plural). Examples: "This is my book." "Those are my friends."
5. Interrogative Pronouns (प्रश्नवाचक): Ask questions. who, whom, whose, which, what. Examples: "Who is that?" "What do you want?"
6. Relative Pronouns (संबंधवाचक): Connect clauses. who, whom, whose, which, that. Examples: "The boy who is standing there is my brother." "The book that you gave me is interesting."
7. Indefinite Pronouns (अनिश्चयवाचक): Refer to non-specific things. someone, anyone, no one, everyone, something, anything, nothing, everything, somebody, anybody, nobody. Examples: "Someone is calling." "I don't know anything."
Subject vs Object Pronouns
| Subject Form | Object Form | Possessive Adjective | Possessive Pronoun |
|---|---|---|---|
| I | me | my | mine |
| you | you | your | yours |
| he | him | his | his |
| she | her | her | hers |
| it | it | its | - |
| we | us | our | ours |
| they | them | their | theirs |
Wrong: "Me and Rahul went to school." ✗ Right: "Rahul and I went to school." ✓ (Subject position = I, not me!)
Wrong: "This book is your." ✗ Right: "This book is yours." ✓ (Possessive pronoun!)
Wrong: "He enjoyed hisself." ✗ Right: "He enjoyed himself." ✓ (No word "hisself"!)
3. Verb (क्रिया) - Action/State Words
Definition & Types
Verb = Shows action OR state of being. Most important part of sentence! "Without verb, no sentence!"
1. Main Verb (मुख्य क्रिया): Shows main action. eat, sleep, run, write, play, study, work. Examples: "I eat rice." "She plays cricket."
2. Helping Verb / Auxiliary Verb (सहायक क्रिया): Helps main verb. Primary: is, am, are, was, were, has, have, had, do, does, did. Modal: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to. Examples: "I am eating." (am = helping, eating = main). "She can dance." (can = helping, dance = main).
3. Linking Verb (संयोजक क्रिया): Connects subject to complement (No action!). Examples: is, am, are, was, were, seem, appear, become, feel, look, smell, taste. "She is beautiful." (is = links "she" to "beautiful"). "The food smells good." (smells = links food to good).
Verb Forms (V1, V2, V3)
| Base Form (V1) | Past Form (V2) | Past Participle (V3) | Present Participle (V4) |
|---|---|---|---|
| eat | ate | eaten | eating |
| go | went | gone | going |
| write | wrote | written | writing |
| play | played | played | playing |
| study | studied | studied | studying |
Transitive vs Intransitive Verbs
Needs object to complete meaning. Examples: "I eat ___" (Eat what? Need object!). "I eat rice." ✓ "She writes ___" → "She writes a letter." ✓ Common: eat, drink, write, read, buy, see, love.
Intransitive Verb (अकर्मक क्रिया):No object needed. Examples: "I sleep." ✓ (Complete!). "The baby cries." ✓. "Birds fly." ✓ Common: sleep, cry, laugh, come, go, die, rise, fall.
Regular vs Irregular Verbs
Add -ed/-d for V2 and V3. play → played → played, walk → walked → walked, love → loved → loved.
Irregular Verbs:Different forms (Must memorize!). go → went → gone, eat → ate → eaten, write → wrote → written, break → broke → broken, choose → chose → chosen, speak → spoke → spoken.
4. Adjective (विशेषण) - Describing Words
Definition & Usage
Adjective = Describes noun/pronoun. "Adds quality to noun." Examples: beautiful girl, red apple, tall boy, intelligent student.
1. Adjective of Quality (गुणवाचक): Shows quality/kind. beautiful, ugly, good, bad, honest, brave, kind, cruel, big, small, hot, cold.
2. Adjective of Quantity (परिमाणवाचक): Shows how much (uncountable). much, little, some, any, enough, sufficient, whole, all. Examples: "much water", "little sugar", "some rice".
3. Adjective of Number (संख्यावाचक): Shows how many (countable). Definite: one, two, three, first, second, third. Indefinite: many, few, several, some, all, no. Examples: "three books", "many students", "first rank".
4. Demonstrative Adjective (संकेतवाचक): Point out which one. this, that, these, those. Examples: "this book" (near), "that car" (far), "these pens" (near-plural), "those trees" (far-plural).
5. Interrogative Adjective (प्रश्नवाचक): Ask questions. which, what, whose. Examples: "Which book?", "What time?", "Whose pen?"
6. Possessive Adjective (अधिकारवाचक): Show ownership. my, your, his, her, its, our, their. Examples: "my book", "his pen", "their house".
Degrees of Comparison
| Positive Degree | Comparative Degree | Superlative Degree |
|---|---|---|
| tall | taller (than) | tallest (the) |
| big | bigger | biggest |
| beautiful | more beautiful | most beautiful |
| intelligent | more intelligent | most intelligent |
| good | better | best |
| bad | worse | worst |
One syllable word: Add -er/-est (tall → taller → tallest). Two syllables ending in -y: Change y to i, add -er/-est (happy → happier → happiest). Long words (2+ syllables): Use more/most (beautiful → more beautiful → most beautiful). Irregular: good-better-best, bad-worse-worst, little-less-least, much/many-more-most.
5. Adverb (क्रिया विशेषण) - Modifies Verb/Adjective/Adverb
Definition & Types
Adverb = Describes verb, adjective, or another adverb. Answers: How? When? Where? How much?
1. Adverb of Manner (रीतिवाचक): How action happens? slowly, quickly, carefully, beautifully, well, badly, hard, fast. Examples: "She sings beautifully." "He runs fast."
2. Adverb of Time (कालवाचक): When? now, then, today, yesterday, tomorrow, soon, early, late, always, never. Examples: "I will go tomorrow." "He always comes late."
3. Adverb of Place (स्थानवाचक): Where? here, there, everywhere, nowhere, inside, outside, up, down. Examples: "Come here." "He looked everywhere."
4. Adverb of Frequency (आवृत्तिवाचक): How often? always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, seldom, never, daily, weekly. Examples: "I always brush my teeth." "He rarely eats junk food."
5. Adverb of Degree (परिमाणवाचक): How much? To what extent? very, too, quite, almost, enough, completely, fully, hardly, scarcely. Examples: "She is very intelligent." "The work is almost complete."
Formation of Adverbs
Usually: Add -ly to adjective. quick → quickly, beautiful → beautifully, careful → carefully, slow → slowly. Ending in -y: Change y to i, add -ly. happy → happily, easy → easily, heavy → heavily. Ending in -le: Change le to ly. simple → simply, gentle → gently, terrible → terribly. Irregular forms: good → well (NOT goodly!), fast → fast (same), hard → hard, late → late/lately.
Position of Adverbs
Manner: Usually after verb or object. "She sings beautifully." "He completed the work carefully."
Time: Usually at beginning or end. "Yesterday I went to market." OR "I went to market yesterday."
Place: Usually after verb. "He lives here." "They went outside."
Frequency: Before main verb, after be verb. "I always wake up early." "He is always late."
Degree: Before adjective/adverb being modified. "She is very beautiful." "He speaks too fast."
6. Preposition (संबंधसूचक अव्यय) - Position/Relation Words
Definition & Usage
Preposition = Shows relationship between noun/pronoun and other words. "Usually before noun/pronoun."
Preposition of Time: in, on, at, by, before, after, during, for, since, from, till/until. at: Specific time (at 5 PM, at night, at noon). on: Days & dates (on Monday, on 15th August). in: Months, years, seasons, long periods (in January, in 2024, in summer, in morning). since: Starting point (since 2020). for: Duration (for 2 hours). by: Deadline (by tomorrow). during: Throughout period (during exam).
Preposition of Place: in, on, at, by, near, beside, between, among, above, below, over, under, behind, in front of, inside, outside. at: Specific point (at gate, at door). on: Surface (on table, on wall). in: Inside/enclosed space (in room, in bag, in India). above/over: Higher position (above head). below/under: Lower position (under table). between: Two things (between you and me). among: More than two (among friends). beside/near: Close to (beside me).
Preposition of Direction: to, towards, from, into, onto, through, across, along, up, down. to: Movement towards (go to school). from: Starting point (come from home). into: Inside movement (go into room). across: From one side to other (across river). through: Passing through (through tunnel).
Other Important Prepositions: of (possession/part of), with (accompaniment), without (absence), by (agent/method), about (concerning), for (purpose), against (opposition).
Common Prepositional Mistakes
Time: at 5 PM ✓, on Monday ✓, in January ✓ (NOT "in Monday" ✗). Place: at home ✓, in school ✓ (NOT "at school" when inside!). Common errors: "Listening music" ✗ → "Listening to music" ✓. "Depend at" ✗ → "Depend on" ✓. "Married with" ✗ → "Married to" ✓. "Reach at" ✗ → "Reach" (no preposition!) ✓. "Discuss about" ✗ → "Discuss" ✓.
7. Conjunction (समुच्चयबोधक अव्यय) - Joining Words
Definition & Types
Conjunction = Joins words, phrases, or sentences. "Connector words."
1. Coordinating Conjunctions (समानाधिकरण): Join equal parts. FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So. and: Addition (I like tea and coffee). but: Contrast (He is poor but honest). or: Choice (Tea or coffee?). so: Result (He was ill, so he didn't come). for: Reason (formal) (He was happy, for he passed). yet: Unexpected contrast (He studied hard, yet failed). nor: Negative addition (He neither smokes nor drinks).
2. Subordinating Conjunctions (व्याधिकरण): Join main clause with subordinate clause. Time: when, while, before, after, since, until, as. Reason: because, since, as. Condition: if, unless, provided that. Contrast: although, though, even though, whereas. Purpose: so that, in order that. Examples: "I will go when he comes." "She failed because she didn't study." "If it rains, we'll stay home."
3. Correlative Conjunctions (सहसंबंधक): Pairs. either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also, both...and, whether...or. Examples: "Either you go or I go." "He is both intelligent and hardworking." "Neither tea nor coffee is available."
Comma before coordinating conjunction in compound sentence: "I went to market, and I bought vegetables." ✓ No comma with short clauses: "I went and bought" ✓. Use parallel structure with correlative: "She is not only beautiful but also intelligent" ✓ (both adjectives!).
8. Interjection (विस्मयादिबोधक अव्यय) - Emotion Words
Definition & Usage
Interjection = Expresses sudden emotion/feeling. "Short exclamation!"
Joy: Hurrah! Wow! Yay! Bravo! Examples: "Hurrah! We won the match!"
Sorrow: Alas! Oh no! Ouch! Examples: "Alas! He is dead."
Surprise: Oh! Ah! What! Examples: "Oh! What a beautiful flower!"
Greeting: Hello! Hi! Hey! Examples: "Hello! How are you?"
Attention: Look! Listen! Behold! Examples: "Look! A shooting star!"
Approval: Bravo! Well done! Examples: "Bravo! Excellent performance!"
Disgust: Ugh! Yuck! Eww! Examples: "Ugh! This tastes terrible!"
Strong emotion: Use exclamation mark (!) "Wow! That's amazing!" Mild emotion: Use comma (,) "Oh, I forgot my book." Position: Usually at beginning, Sometimes middle: "I, alas, failed the exam."
ENGLISH TENSES - COMPLETE GUIDE
12 tenses with formulas, usage, and examples
PRESENT TENSE (वर्तमान काल) - 4 Types
1. Simple Present Tense
Subject + V1 (s/es with He/She/It) + Object
Usage:1. Habitual actions (Daily routine, Habits). 2. Universal truth (Facts). 3. Scheduled future. 4. With always, daily, every day, usually, often, sometimes, never.
Examples:Positive: I play cricket. He plays cricket. We study daily. Negative: I do not play. He does not play. Question: Do you play? Does he play?
Hindi Meaning:मैं क्रिकेट खेलता हूँ। वह रोज पढ़ता है। (ता है, ती है, ते हैं)
2. Present Continuous Tense
Subject + is/am/are + V1+ing + Object
Usage:1. Action happening NOW. 2. Temporary situations. 3. Future plans (definite). 4. With now, at present, at the moment, currently.
Examples:Positive: I am playing cricket. He is studying now. They are coming tomorrow (future plan). Negative: I am not playing. He is not studying. Question: Am I playing? Is he studying?
Hindi Meaning:मैं क्रिकेट खेल रहा हूँ। वह अभी पढ़ रहा है। (रहा है, रही है, रहे हैं)
3. Present Perfect Tense
Subject + has/have + V3 + Object
Usage:1. Action completed in present (Result visible now). 2. Experience (Ever/never). 3. With just, already, yet, ever, never, recently, lately, so far.
Examples:Positive: I have finished my work. He has eaten lunch. Negative: I have not finished. Question: Have you finished? Has he eaten?
Hindi Meaning:मैंने अपना काम पूरा कर लिया है। उसने खाना खा लिया है। (चुका है, चुकी है, चुके हैं / या है, ये हैं, ए हैं)
4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Subject + has/have + been + V1+ing + Object + since/for + time
Usage:1. Action started in past, still continuing. 2. Emphasis on duration. 3. With since (point of time), for (duration).
Examples:Positive: I have been studying for 2 hours. He has been living here since 2020. Negative: I have not been studying. Question: Have you been studying? How long have you been waiting?
Hindi Meaning:मैं 2 घंटे से पढ़ रहा हूँ। वह 2020 से यहाँ रह रहा है। (से/के लिए...रहा है)
PAST TENSE (भूतकाल) - 4 Types
1. Simple Past Tense
Subject + V2 + Object
Usage:1. Action completed in past. 2. With yesterday, last week, last year, ago, in 2020.
Examples:Positive: I played cricket yesterday. He studied last night. Negative: I did not play. He did not study. Question: Did you play? Did he study?
Hindi Meaning:मैंने कल क्रिकेट खेला। उसने कल रात पढ़ा। (आ, ई, ए / या, यी, ये)
2. Past Continuous Tense
Subject + was/were + V1+ing + Object
Usage:1. Action in progress at specific time in past. 2. Two actions happening together (one continuous, one simple past). 3. With when, while, at that time, at 5 PM yesterday.
Examples:Positive: I was playing cricket at 5 PM. He was studying when I called. Negative: I was not playing. Question: Was I playing? Were they studying?
Hindi Meaning:मैं 5 बजे क्रिकेट खेल रहा था। जब मैंने फोन किया वह पढ़ रहा था। (रहा था, रही थी, रहे थे)
3. Past Perfect Tense
Subject + had + V3 + Object
Usage:1. Action completed before another past action. 2. Earlier past action. 3. With before, after, already, just, by the time.
Examples:Positive: I had finished my work before he came. The train had left when I reached. Negative: I had not finished. Question: Had you finished? Had the train left?
Hindi Meaning:उसके आने से पहले मैंने अपना काम पूरा कर लिया था। जब मैं पहुँचा तो ट्रेन जा चुकी थी। (चुका था, चुकी थी, चुके थे)
4. Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Subject + had + been + V1+ing + Object + since/for + time
Usage:1. Action started in past, continued till another past point. 2. Emphasis on duration.
Examples:Positive: I had been studying for 2 hours when he came. They had been living there since 2010. Negative: I had not been studying. Question: Had you been studying? How long had you been waiting?
Hindi Meaning:जब वह आया मैं 2 घंटे से पढ़ रहा था। वे 2010 से वहाँ रह रहे थे। (से/के लिए...रहा था)
FUTURE TENSE (भविष्यकाल) - 4 Types
1. Simple Future Tense
Subject + will/shall + V1 + Object
Usage:1. Future actions/events. 2. Predictions. 3. Spontaneous decisions. 4. With tomorrow, next week, next year, soon.
Examples:Positive: I will play cricket tomorrow. He will study tonight. Negative: I will not play. He will not study. Question: Will you play? Will he study?
Hindi Meaning:मैं कल क्रिकेट खेलूँगा। व��� आज रात पढ़ेगा। (गा, गी, ��े)
2. Future Continuous Tense
Subject + will/shall + be + V1+ing + Object
Usage:1. Action in progress at specific time in future. 2. Future plans. 3. With at this time tomorrow, at 5 PM tomorrow.
Examples:Positive: I will be playing cricket at 5 PM tomorrow. He will be studying at this time next week. Negative: I will not be playing. Question: Will you be playing? Will he be studying?
Hindi Meaning:कल 5 बजे मैं क्रिकेट खेल रहा हूँगा। अगले हफ्ते इस समय वह पढ़ रहा होगा। (रहा होगा, रही होगी, रहे होंगे)
3. Future Perfect Tense
Subject + will/shall + have + V3 + Object
Usage:1. Action will be completed before specific future time. 2. With by tomorrow, by next week, by the time.
Examples:Positive: I will have finished my work by 5 PM. He will have completed the project by tomorrow. Negative: I will not have finished. Question: Will you have finished? Will he have completed?
Hindi Meaning:5 बजे तक मैं अपना काम पूरा कर चुका हूँगा। कल तक वह प्रोजेक्ट पूरा कर चुका होगा। (चुका होगा, चुकी होगी, चुके होंगे)
4. Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Subject + will/shall + have + been + V1+ing + Object + for + time
Usage:1. Duration of action till specific future time. 2. Emphasis on how long.
Examples:Positive: I will have been studying for 3 hours by 6 PM. He will have been living here for 10 years next month. Negative: I will not have been studying. Question: Will you have been studying? How long will you have been working?
Hindi Meaning:6 बजे तक मैं 3 घंटे से पढ़ रहा हूँगा। अगले महीने वह यहाँ 10 साल से रह रहा होगा।
Tense Usage Quick Reference
| Time Signal Words | Tense to Use |
|---|---|
| always, every day, usually, often, sometimes, never | Simple Present |
| now, at present, at the moment, currently | Present Continuous |
| just, already, yet, ever, never, recently, so far | Present Perfect |
| since, for (with present result) | Present Perfect Continuous |
| yesterday, last week, ago, in 2020 | Simple Past |
| when, while, at that time (past) | Past Continuous |
| before, after, already, by the time (past) | Past Perfect |
| tomorrow, next week, soon, in the future | Simple Future |
| at this time tomorrow, at 5 PM next week | Future Continuous |
| by tomorrow, by next month, by the time | Future Perfect |
Wrong: "I am knowing the answer." ✗ Right: "I know the answer." ✓ (Stative verbs no continuous!). Wrong: "He is having a car." ✗ Right: "He has a car." ✓. Wrong: "I have finished before he came." ✗ Right: "I had finished before he came." ✓ (Past perfect for earlier action!). Wrong: "If I will see him, I will tell." ✗ Right: "If I see him, I will tell." ✓ (No will in if clause!)
HINDI VYAKARAN (हिंदी व्याकरण)
संज्ञा, सर्वनाम, विशेषण, क्रिया, लिंग, वचन, कारक
संज्ञा (Sangya) - Noun
परिभाषा और प्रकार
संज्ञा = किसी व्यक्ति, वस्तु, स्थान या ���ाव के नाम को संज्ञा कहते हैं।
1. व्यक्तिवाचक संज्ञा (Proper Noun): किसी विशेष व्यक्ति, स्थान या वस्तु का नाम। उदाहरण: राहुल, दिल्ली, गंगा, ताजमहल, सोमवार, जनवरी। विशेष: पहल��� अक���षर हमेशा बड़ा!
2. जातिवाचक संज्ञा (Common Noun): एक ही जाति की सभी वस्तुओं या व्यक्तियों का बोध। उदाहरण: लड़का, शहर, नदी, इमारत, दिन, महीना। किसी एक विशेष का नाम नहीं, पूरी जाति का!
3. भाववाचक संज्ञा (Abstract Noun): जिसे छू नहीं सकते, केवल महसूस कर सकते हैं। उदाहरण: प्रेम, ईमानदारी, बचपन, बुढ़ापा, सुंदरता, मिठास, खुशी, दुःख। बनाना: विशेषण से (सुंदर → सुंदरता), क्रिया से (खेल���ा → खेल), संज्ञा से (बच्चा → ��चपन)।
4. समूहवाचक संज्ञा (Collective Noun): समूह का बोध कराने वाली। उदाहरण: कक्षा, परिवार, भीड़, सेना, दल, झुंड, गुच्छा।
5. द्रव्यवाचक संज्ञा (Material Noun): पदार्थ जिससे कुछ बनाया जाता है। उदाहरण: सोना, चांदी, पानी, दूध, लकड़ी, लोहा। गिनती नहीं होती!
लिंग (Ling) - Gender
पुल्लिंग (Masculine): लड़का, पिता, रा��ा, घोड़ा, सूरज, पहाड़, दिन। पहचान: आ, पन, पा की मात्रा वाले अक्सर पुल्लिंग। पहाड़, समुद्र, महीने, दिन अक्सर पुल्लिंग। धातु और रत्न (सोना, हीरा) पुल्लिंग।
स्त्रीलिंग (Feminine): लड़की, माता, रानी, घोड़ी, चाँद, नदी, रात। पहचान: ई, इया, नी, या, ता, वट की मात्रा। नदियाँ (गंगा, यमुना) स्त्रीलिंग। भाषाएँ (हिंदी, अंग्र���ज़ी) स्त्रीलिंग। तारीखें स्त्रीलिंग।
पुल्लिंग से स���त्���ीलिंग बनाना: लड़का → ल��़की, बेटा → बेटी, राजा → रानी, शेर → शेरनी, लेखक → लेखिका।
वचन (Vachan) - Number
एकवचन (Singular): एक का बोध। लड़का, किताब, गाय।
बहुवचन (Plural): एक से अधिक का बोध। लड़के, किताबें, गायें।
एकवचन से बहुवचन: आ को ए (लड़का → लड़के, कमरा → कमरे)। अंति�� स्वर के बाद एँ (किताब → किताबें, गाय → गायें)। इया को इयाँ (��िड़ि��ा → चिड़ियाँ)। ई को इयाँ (नदी → नदियाँ, लड़की → लड़कियाँ)।
सर्वनाम (Sarvanam) - Pronoun
परिभाषा और प्रकार
स��्वनाम = संज्ञा के स्थान पर प्रयोग होने वाले शब्द। "पुनरुक्ति से बचाव!"
1. पुरुषवाचक सर्वनाम (Personal): उत्तम पुरुष (बोलने वाला): मैं, हम। मध्यम पुरुष (सुनने वाला): तू, तुम, आप। अन्य पुरुष (जिसके बारे में बात): वह, वे, यह, ये।
2. निश्चयवाचक सर्वनाम (Demonstrative): निश्चित व्यक्ति या वस्तु की ओर संकेत। यह, वह, ये, वे। उदाहरण: यह मेरी किताब है। वह मेर��� घर है।
3. अनिश्चयवाचक ���र्वनाम (Indefinite): अनिश्चित व्यक्ति या वस्तु। कोई, कुछ। उदाहरण: कोई आ रहा है। कुछ खा लो।
4. संबंधवाचक सर्वनाम (Relative): संबंध जोड़ता है। जो-सो, जो-वह। उदाहरण: जो मेहनत करेगा, वह सफल होगा।
5. प्रश्नवाचक सर्वनाम (Interrogative): प्रश्न पूछने के लिए। कौन, क्या, किस���ा। उदाहरण: तुम कौन हो? यह क्या है?
6. निजवाचक सर्वनाम (Reflexive): अपने आप का बोध। आप, ��पना, स्वयं, खुद। उदाहरण: मैं खुद जाऊंग���। वह अपना काम करता है।
आदर के लिए: एकवचन में भी बहुवचन (आप आइए, वे आ रहे हैं)। कारक चिह्नों के साथ रूप बदलते हैं: मैं → मुझे, तुम → तुम्हें, वह → उसे।
विशेषण (Visheshan) - Adjective
परिभाषा और प्रकार
विशेषण = संज्ञा या सर्वनाम की विशेषता बताने वाला शब्द।
1. गुणवाचक विशेषण: गुण बताए। सुंदर, बुद्धिमान, ईमानदार, अच्छा, बुरा, मीठा, कड��वा, लाल, नीला। उदाहरण: सुंदर लड़की, बुद्धिमान छात्र।
2. संख्यावाचक विशेषण: संख्या बताए। निश्चित: एक, दो, तीन, पहला, दूसरा। अनिश्चित: कुछ, कई, अनेक, थोड़े, बहुत। उदाहरण: तीन किताबें, कुछ लोग।
3. परिमाणवाचक विशेषण: मात्रा बताए। निश्चित: एक किलो, दो लीटर, पांच मीटर। अनिश्चित: थोड़ा, बहुत, कम, अधिक, पर्याप्त। उदाहरण: थोड़ा पानी, बहुत दूध।
4. सार्वनामिक व��शेषण: सर्व��ाम जो विशेषण की तरह प्रयोग�� यह, वह, ये, वे, कोई, कुछ, कौन। उदाहरण: यह किताब, कोई आदमी।
5. व्यक्तिवाचक विशेषण: व्यक्तिवाचक संज्ञा से बना। भारतीय, जापानी, दिल्लीवासी, पंजाबी। उदाहरण: भारतीय संस्कृति।
विशेषण की अवस्थाएँ
| मू��ावस्था | उत्तरावस्था | उत्तमावस्था |
|---|---|---|
| सुंदर | अधिक सुंदर | सबसे सुंदर |
| बड़ा | और बड़ा / बड़ा से बड़ा | सबसे बड़ा |
| अच्छा | अधिक अच्छा / बेहतर | सबसे अच्छा / श्रेष्ठ |
क्रिया (Kriya) - Verb
परिभाषा और प्रक��र
क्रिया = कार्य या होने का बोध कराने वाला शब्द। "वाक्य की जान!"
1. अकर्मक क��रिया (Intransitive): जिसे कर्म की जरूरत नहीं। रोना, सोना, हँसना, आना, जाना, दौड़ना। उदाहरण: बच्चा रोता है। (कर्म नहीं चाहिए!)
2. सकर्मक क्रिया (Transitive): जिसे कर्म की जरूरत है। खाना, पीना, लिखना, पढ़ना, देखना। उदाहरण: मैं खाना खाता हूँ। (क्या खाता हूँ? खाना = कर्म)
3. द्विकर्मक क्रिया: दो कर्म चाहिए। देना, सिखाना, बताना। उदाहरण: मैंने राहुल को किताब दी। (राहुल = कर्म 1, किताब = कर्म 2)
4. प्रेरणार्थक क्रिया: कोई दूसरा करवाता है। खाना → खिलाना, पीना → पिलाना, सोना → सुलाना। उदाहरण: माँ बच्चे को दूध पिलाती है।
5. संयुक्त क्रिया: दो क्रियाओं का मेल। जा रहा है, खा लिया, कर दिया, पढ़ रहा था।
6. नामधातु क्रिया: संज्ञा/व���शेषण से बनी। हा�� → ��थियाना, बात → बतियाना, ��र्म → गरमाना।
क्रिया के काल (Tenses)
1. वर्तमान काल (Present): अभी चल रहा या नियमित। मैं जाता हूँ। (साधारण), मैं जा रहा हूँ। (अपूर्ण), मैं गया हूँ। (पूर्ण), मैं जाता रहा हूँ। (संदिग्ध)।
2. भूतकाल (Past): बीत चुका समय। मैं गया। (साधारण), मैं जा रहा था। (अपूर्ण), मैं गया था। (पूर्ण), मैं गया होगा। (संदिग्ध)।
3. भविष्यत काल (Future): आने ���ाला समय। मैं जाऊँगा। (साधारण), मैं जाता रहूँगा। (अपूर्ण), मैं जा चुका होऊँगा। (पूर्ण)।
वर्तमान: है, हूँ, हैं, रहा है, रही है, रहे हैं। भूतकाल: था, थी, थे, गया, गई, गए। भविष्य: गा, गी, गे, होगा, होगी, होंगे।
कारक (Karak) - Case Relations
परिभाषा
कारक = संज्ञा या सर्वनाम का क्रिय��� के साथ संबंध। "विभक्ति चिह्नों से पहचान!"
| कारक | विभक्ति चिह्न | उदाहरण |
|---|---|---|
| कर्ता (Nominative) | ने (भूतकाल में) | राम ने खाना खाया। |
| कर्म (Accusative) | को | मैंने राम को देखा। |
| करण (Instrumental) | से, के द्वारा | मैं पेन से लिखता हूँ। |
| सं��्रदान (Dative) | को, के लिए | मैंने गर���ब को पैसे दिए। |
| अपादान (Ablative) | से (अलग होन���) | पेड़ से पत्ता गिरा। |
| संबंध (Genitive) | का, की, के | यह राम की किताब है। |
| अधिकरण (Locative) | में, पर | मेज पर किताब है। |
| संबोधन (Vocative) | हे, अरे, ओ | हे भगवा���! अरे राम! |
कर्ता: कौन? (Who does?). कर्म: किसको? क्या? (Whom? What?). करण: किससे? (By what means?). संप्रदान: किसके लिए? (For whom?). अपादान: किससे अलग? (Separated from?). संबंध: किसका? (Whose?). अधिकरण: कहाँ? (Where?). संबोधन: बुलावा! (Calling!)
समास (Samas) - Compound Words
परिभाषा और प्रकार
समास = दो या अधिक शब्दों का मेल जिससे नया शब्द बने। "विग���रह से पहचान!"
1. अव्ययीभाव समास: पहला पद अव्यय (Indeclinable)। यथाशक्त�� = शक्ति के अनुसार, आजन्म = जन्म से लेकर, प्रतिदिन = हर दिन, यथासमय = समय के अनुसार। पहचान: यथा, प्रति, आ, अनु, ��प से शुरू।
2. ��त्पुरुष समास: दूसरा पद प्रधान। राजपुत्र = राजा का ��ुत्र, देशभक्ति = देश के लिए भक्ति, जन्मदिन = जन्म का दिन। उपप्रकार: कर्म (गिरहकट), करण (रेखांकित), संप्रदान (देशभक्ति), अपादान (पथभ्रष्ट), संबंध (राजपुत्र), अधिकरण (आनंदमग्न)।
3. कर्मधारय समास: विशेषण-विशेष्य या उपमान-उपमेय। नीलकमल = नीला कमल, महापुरुष = महान पुरुष, चंद्रमुख = चंद्र क�� समान मुख। पहचान: पहला पद वि��ेषण या उपमान।
4. द्विगु समास: पहला पद संख्यावाचक। त्रिलोक = तीन लोकों का समूह, चौराहा = चार राहों का समूह, सप्ताह = सात दिनों का समूह, नवरात्र = नौ रातों का समूह।
5. द्वंद्व समास: दोनों पद प्रधान (और से जोड़ सकते हैं)। माता-पिता = माता और पिता, भाई-बहन = भाई और बहन, सुख-दुःख = सुख और दुःख, रात-दिन = रात और दिन।
6. बहुव्रीहि समास: दोनों पद मिलकर तीसरा अर्थ (जिसका, जिसमें)। चक्रपाणि = चक्र है पाण��� (हाथ) में ��िसके = विष्णु, लंबोदर = लंबा है उदर जिसका = ��णेश, नीलकंठ = नीला है कंठ जिसका = शिव, त्रिनेत्र = तीन नेत्र हैं जिसके = शिव।
तत्पुरुष: कारक चिह्न आता है (का, के, की, से, के लिए, में)। कर्मधारय: विशेषण + संज्ञा OR समान। द्वंद्व: "और" लगा सकते हैं। बहुव्रीहि: "जिसका, जिसमें, जिसके" से विग्रह।
अलंकार (Alankar) - Figures of Speech
परिभाषा और प्रकार
अ��ंकार = काव्य को सुंदर बनाने वाले तत्व। "काव्य का श्रृंगार!"
1. अनुप्रास अलंकार: एक ही व्यंजन की बार-बार आवृत्ति। चारु चंद्र की चंचल किरणें। (च की आवृत्ति), कल कानन कुंडल मोर पखा। (क की आवृत्ति)
2. यमक अलंकार: एक शब्द बार-बार आए पर अर्थ अलग। काली घटा का घमंड घटा। (घटा = बादल, घटा = कम हुआ), मन का मनका मन ही माँझ। (मनका = मोती, मन = हृदय)
3. श्लेष अलंकार: एक शब्द के कई अर्थ। रहिमन पानी राखिये, बिन पानी सब ��ून। (पानी = जल, चमक, ��ज्जत - तीन अर्थ!)
4. उपमा अलंकार: दो वस्तुओं ��ें स��ानता। पीपर पात सरिस मन डोला। (मन पीपल के पत्ते के समान डोला), म��ख चंद्रमा के समान सुंदर है। सूत्र: उपमेय + उपमान + साधारण धर्म + उपमा वाचक शब्द (समान, सा, सी, से)।
5. रूपक अलंकार: उपमेय में उपमान का आरोप। चरण कमल बंदौ हरिराई। (चरण = कमल, सीधा कह दिया!), मैया मैं तो चंद्र-खिलौना लैहों। (चंद्र को खिलौना कहा)
6. उत्प्रेक्षा अलंकार: संभावना या कल्पना। मानो, मनु, जनु, जानो से पहचान। सखि सोहत गोपाल के, उर गुंजन की माल। (गुंजन की माला मानो शोभा दे रही ��ै)
7. अतिशयोक्ति अलंकार: बढ़ा-चढ़ाकर वर्णन। हनुमान की पूँछ में लग न पाई आग। लंका सिगरी जल गई, गए निशाचर भाग।। (अति बढ़ा-चढ़ाकर!)
एक वर्ण बार-बार = अनुप्रास। शब्द repeat पर अर्थ अलग = यमक। एक शब्द के कई अर्थ = श्लेष। "समान, सा, सी, से" = उपमा। सीधा "है" = रूपक। "��ान���, जनु, मनु" = उत्प्रेक्षा। बहुत बढ़ा-चढ़ाकर = अतिशयोक्ति।