English & Hindi Grammar Notes | Complete Grammar Guide

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ENGLISH & HINDI GRAMMAR NOTES

Complete Grammar Guide - Parts of Speech, Tenses, Voice, Narration, Hindi Vyakaran

Master English and Hindi Grammar! Complete notes covering: Parts of Speech (Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection). All 12 English Tenses with formulas and examples. Active-Passive Voice conversion rules. Direct-Indirect Speech narration changes. Sentence structure and types. Punctuation rules. Hindi Vyakaran: Sangya (संज्ञा), Sarvanam (सर्वनाम), Visheshan (विशेषण), Kriya (क्रिया), Ling (लिंग), Vachan (वचन), Karak (कारक), Samas (समास), Alankar (अलंकार). Articles (a, an, the) usage. Subject-Verb agreement. Common grammar mistakes to avoid. Exam-focused tips for competitive exams!

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR - PARTS OF SPEECH

8 types of words that form complete sentences

1. Noun (संज्ञा) - Naming Words

Definition & Types

Noun = Name of person, place, thing, or idea. "The word that names something."

Types of Nouns:

1. Proper Noun (व्यक्तिवाचक संज्ञा): Specific names (Always capital letter). Examples: Rahul, India, Monday, January, Taj Mahal, Ganges River. Rule: First letter ALWAYS capital!

2. Common Noun (जातिवाचक संज्ञा): General names (Common category). Examples: boy, city, day, month, building, river. Rule: Small letter (unless starting sentence).

3. Collective Noun (समूहवाचक संज्ञा): Group of things/people. Examples: team, family, crowd, committee, flock (birds), herd (animals), bunch (flowers). Usage: Can be singular OR plural! "The team is playing" OR "The team are arguing among themselves."

4. Abstract Noun (भाववाचक संज्ञा): Ideas, qualities, emotions (Cannot touch/see). Examples: love, honesty, happiness, beauty, childhood, wisdom, freedom. Formation: Often from adjectives/verbs: happy → happiness, kind → kindness, child → childhood.

5. Material Noun (द्रव्यवाचक संज्ञा): Substances/materials. Examples: gold, water, milk, wood, cotton, rice, sugar. Rule: Usually uncountable (No plural form).

Countable vs Uncountable Nouns

Countable Nouns (गिनती वाली संज्ञा):

Can count (1, 2, 3...). Have singular & plural forms. Examples: book/books, pen/pens, apple/apples. Use: a/an with singular. Use: many, few, a few, several with plural.

Uncountable Nouns (अगिनती संज्ञा):

Cannot count individually. NO plural form. Examples: water, milk, rice, sugar, information, advice, furniture. Use: much, little, a little, some. NEVER use: a/an directly! Wrong: "a water" ✗ Right: "a glass of water" ✓

Noun Number - Singular to Plural Rules

Plural Formation Rules:

Rule 1: Add 's' - book → books, pen → pens, cat → cats.

Rule 2: Add 'es' after s, x, z, ch, sh - bus → buses, box → boxes, dish → dishes, watch → watches.

Rule 3: Ending in consonant + y → change y to ies - baby → babies, city → cities, story → stories. Exception: If vowel + y → just add s: boy → boys, key → keys.

Rule 4: Ending in f/fe → change to ves - knife → knives, leaf → leaves, wife → wives. Exception: Some add just s: roof → roofs, chief → chiefs.

Rule 5: Ending in o → Add es OR s - potato → potatoes, tomato → tomatoes, hero → heroes. BUT: photo → photos, piano → pianos.

Irregular Plurals: man → men, woman → women, child → children, tooth → teeth, foot → feet, mouse → mice, ox → oxen, goose → geese.

Same Singular & Plural: sheep → sheep, deer → deer, fish → fish, aircraft → aircraft.

Noun Gender (लिंग)

Masculine (पुल्लिंग)	Feminine (स्त्रीलिंग)	Common Gender	Neuter Gender
boy, man, father, king, actor, hero, waiter	girl, woman, mother, queen, actress, heroine, waitress	teacher, student, doctor, baby, friend	book, pen, table (non-living things)

2. Pronoun (सर्वनाम) - Words Used Instead of Nouns

Why Use Pronouns?

To avoid repetition! Without pronoun: "Rahul is a student. Rahul goes to school. Rahul studies hard." With pronoun: "Rahul is a student. He goes to school. He studies hard." ✓

Types of Pronouns:

1. Personal Pronouns (व्यक्तिवाचक सर्वनाम): Refer to persons. First Person: I, we, me, us (Speaker). Second Person: you (Listener). Third Person: he, she, it, they, him, her, them (Others).

2. Possessive Pronouns (अधिकार सूचक): Show ownership. Examples: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs. Usage: "This book is mine" (NOT "This book is my" ✗).

3. Reflexive Pronouns (निजवाचक): Refer back to subject. myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. Usage: "I hurt myself" (Subject and object same person).

4. Demonstrative Pronouns (संकेतवाचक): Point to something. this, that (singular), these, those (plural). Examples: "This is my book." "Those are my friends."

5. Interrogative Pronouns (प्रश्नवाचक): Ask questions. who, whom, whose, which, what. Examples: "Who is that?" "What do you want?"

6. Relative Pronouns (संबंधवाचक): Connect clauses. who, whom, whose, which, that. Examples: "The boy who is standing there is my brother." "The book that you gave me is interesting."

7. Indefinite Pronouns (अनिश्चयवाचक): Refer to non-specific things. someone, anyone, no one, everyone, something, anything, nothing, everything, somebody, anybody, nobody. Examples: "Someone is calling." "I don't know anything."

Subject vs Object Pronouns

Subject Form	Object Form	Possessive Adjective	Possessive Pronoun
I	me	my	mine
you	you	your	yours
he	him	his	his
she	her	her	hers
it	it	its	-
we	us	our	ours
they	them	their	theirs

Common Mistakes:

Wrong: "Me and Rahul went to school." ✗ Right: "Rahul and I went to school." ✓ (Subject position = I, not me!)

Wrong: "This book is your." ✗ Right: "This book is yours." ✓ (Possessive pronoun!)

Wrong: "He enjoyed hisself." ✗ Right: "He enjoyed himself." ✓ (No word "hisself"!)

3. Verb (क्रिया) - Action/State Words

Definition & Types

Verb = Shows action OR state of being. Most important part of sentence! "Without verb, no sentence!"

Main Types of Verbs:

1. Main Verb (मुख्य क्रिया): Shows main action. eat, sleep, run, write, play, study, work. Examples: "I eat rice." "She plays cricket."

2. Helping Verb / Auxiliary Verb (सहायक क्रिया): Helps main verb. Primary: is, am, are, was, were, has, have, had, do, does, did. Modal: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to. Examples: "I am eating." (am = helping, eating = main). "She can dance." (can = helping, dance = main).

3. Linking Verb (संयोजक क्रिया): Connects subject to complement (No action!). Examples: is, am, are, was, were, seem, appear, become, feel, look, smell, taste. "She is beautiful." (is = links "she" to "beautiful"). "The food smells good." (smells = links food to good).

Verb Forms (V1, V2, V3)

Base Form (V1)	Past Form (V2)	Past Participle (V3)	Present Participle (V4)
eat	ate	eaten	eating
go	went	gone	going
write	wrote	written	writing
play	played	played	playing
study	studied	studied	studying

Transitive vs Intransitive Verbs

Transitive Verb (सकर्मक क्रिया):

Needs object to complete meaning. Examples: "I eat ___" (Eat what? Need object!). "I eat rice." ✓ "She writes ___" → "She writes a letter." ✓ Common: eat, drink, write, read, buy, see, love.

Intransitive Verb (अकर्मक क्रिया):

No object needed. Examples: "I sleep." ✓ (Complete!). "The baby cries." ✓. "Birds fly." ✓ Common: sleep, cry, laugh, come, go, die, rise, fall.

Regular vs Irregular Verbs

Regular Verbs:

Add -ed/-d for V2 and V3. play → played → played, walk → walked → walked, love → loved → loved.

Irregular Verbs:

Different forms (Must memorize!). go → went → gone, eat → ate → eaten, write → wrote → written, break → broke → broken, choose → chose → chosen, speak → spoke → spoken.

4. Adjective (विशेषण) - Describing Words

Definition & Usage

Adjective = Describes noun/pronoun. "Adds quality to noun." Examples: beautiful girl, red apple, tall boy, intelligent student.

Types of Adjectives:

1. Adjective of Quality (गुणवाचक): Shows quality/kind. beautiful, ugly, good, bad, honest, brave, kind, cruel, big, small, hot, cold.

2. Adjective of Quantity (परिमाणवाचक): Shows how much (uncountable). much, little, some, any, enough, sufficient, whole, all. Examples: "much water", "little sugar", "some rice".

3. Adjective of Number (संख्यावाचक): Shows how many (countable). Definite: one, two, three, first, second, third. Indefinite: many, few, several, some, all, no. Examples: "three books", "many students", "first rank".

4. Demonstrative Adjective (संकेतवाचक): Point out which one. this, that, these, those. Examples: "this book" (near), "that car" (far), "these pens" (near-plural), "those trees" (far-plural).

5. Interrogative Adjective (प्रश्नवाचक): Ask questions. which, what, whose. Examples: "Which book?", "What time?", "Whose pen?"

6. Possessive Adjective (अधिकारवाचक): Show ownership. my, your, his, her, its, our, their. Examples: "my book", "his pen", "their house".

Degrees of Comparison

Positive Degree	Comparative Degree	Superlative Degree
tall	taller (than)	tallest (the)
big	bigger	biggest
beautiful	more beautiful	most beautiful
intelligent	more intelligent	most intelligent
good	better	best
bad	worse	worst

Rules for Comparison:

One syllable word: Add -er/-est (tall → taller → tallest). Two syllables ending in -y: Change y to i, add -er/-est (happy → happier → happiest). Long words (2+ syllables): Use more/most (beautiful → more beautiful → most beautiful). Irregular: good-better-best, bad-worse-worst, little-less-least, much/many-more-most.

5. Adverb (क्रिया विशेषण) - Modifies Verb/Adjective/Adverb

Definition & Types

Adverb = Describes verb, adjective, or another adverb. Answers: How? When? Where? How much?

Types of Adverbs:

1. Adverb of Manner (रीतिवाचक): How action happens? slowly, quickly, carefully, beautifully, well, badly, hard, fast. Examples: "She sings beautifully." "He runs fast."

2. Adverb of Time (कालवाचक): When? now, then, today, yesterday, tomorrow, soon, early, late, always, never. Examples: "I will go tomorrow." "He always comes late."

3. Adverb of Place (स्थानवाचक): Where? here, there, everywhere, nowhere, inside, outside, up, down. Examples: "Come here." "He looked everywhere."

4. Adverb of Frequency (आवृत्तिवाचक): How often? always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, seldom, never, daily, weekly. Examples: "I always brush my teeth." "He rarely eats junk food."

5. Adverb of Degree (परिमाणवाचक): How much? To what extent? very, too, quite, almost, enough, completely, fully, hardly, scarcely. Examples: "She is very intelligent." "The work is almost complete."

Formation of Adverbs

Making Adverbs from Adjectives:

Usually: Add -ly to adjective. quick → quickly, beautiful → beautifully, careful → carefully, slow → slowly. Ending in -y: Change y to i, add -ly. happy → happily, easy → easily, heavy → heavily. Ending in -le: Change le to ly. simple → simply, gentle → gently, terrible → terribly. Irregular forms: good → well (NOT goodly!), fast → fast (same), hard → hard, late → late/lately.

Position of Adverbs

Where to Place Adverbs:

Manner: Usually after verb or object. "She sings beautifully." "He completed the work carefully."

Time: Usually at beginning or end. "Yesterday I went to market." OR "I went to market yesterday."

Place: Usually after verb. "He lives here." "They went outside."

Frequency: Before main verb, after be verb. "I always wake up early." "He is always late."

Degree: Before adjective/adverb being modified. "She is very beautiful." "He speaks too fast."

6. Preposition (संबंधसूचक अव्यय) - Position/Relation Words

Definition & Usage

Preposition = Shows relationship between noun/pronoun and other words. "Usually before noun/pronoun."

Common Prepositions by Type:

Preposition of Time: in, on, at, by, before, after, during, for, since, from, till/until. at: Specific time (at 5 PM, at night, at noon). on: Days & dates (on Monday, on 15th August). in: Months, years, seasons, long periods (in January, in 2024, in summer, in morning). since: Starting point (since 2020). for: Duration (for 2 hours). by: Deadline (by tomorrow). during: Throughout period (during exam).

Preposition of Place: in, on, at, by, near, beside, between, among, above, below, over, under, behind, in front of, inside, outside. at: Specific point (at gate, at door). on: Surface (on table, on wall). in: Inside/enclosed space (in room, in bag, in India). above/over: Higher position (above head). below/under: Lower position (under table). between: Two things (between you and me). among: More than two (among friends). beside/near: Close to (beside me).

Preposition of Direction: to, towards, from, into, onto, through, across, along, up, down. to: Movement towards (go to school). from: Starting point (come from home). into: Inside movement (go into room). across: From one side to other (across river). through: Passing through (through tunnel).

Other Important Prepositions: of (possession/part of), with (accompaniment), without (absence), by (agent/method), about (concerning), for (purpose), against (opposition).

Common Prepositional Mistakes

Correct Usage:

Time: at 5 PM ✓, on Monday ✓, in January ✓ (NOT "in Monday" ✗). Place: at home ✓, in school ✓ (NOT "at school" when inside!). Common errors: "Listening music" ✗ → "Listening to music" ✓. "Depend at" ✗ → "Depend on" ✓. "Married with" ✗ → "Married to" ✓. "Reach at" ✗ → "Reach" (no preposition!) ✓. "Discuss about" ✗ → "Discuss" ✓.

7. Conjunction (समुच्चयबोधक अव्यय) - Joining Words

Definition & Types

Conjunction = Joins words, phrases, or sentences. "Connector words."

Types of Conjunctions:

1. Coordinating Conjunctions (समानाधिकरण): Join equal parts. FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So. and: Addition (I like tea and coffee). but: Contrast (He is poor but honest). or: Choice (Tea or coffee?). so: Result (He was ill, so he didn't come). for: Reason (formal) (He was happy, for he passed). yet: Unexpected contrast (He studied hard, yet failed). nor: Negative addition (He neither smokes nor drinks).

2. Subordinating Conjunctions (व्याधिकरण): Join main clause with subordinate clause. Time: when, while, before, after, since, until, as. Reason: because, since, as. Condition: if, unless, provided that. Contrast: although, though, even though, whereas. Purpose: so that, in order that. Examples: "I will go when he comes." "She failed because she didn't study." "If it rains, we'll stay home."

3. Correlative Conjunctions (सहसंबंधक): Pairs. either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also, both...and, whether...or. Examples: "Either you go or I go." "He is both intelligent and hardworking." "Neither tea nor coffee is available."

Usage Tips:

Comma before coordinating conjunction in compound sentence: "I went to market, and I bought vegetables." ✓ No comma with short clauses: "I went and bought" ✓. Use parallel structure with correlative: "She is not only beautiful but also intelligent" ✓ (both adjectives!).

8. Interjection (विस्मयादिबोधक अव्यय) - Emotion Words

Definition & Usage

Interjection = Expresses sudden emotion/feeling. "Short exclamation!"

Common Interjections:

Joy: Hurrah! Wow! Yay! Bravo! Examples: "Hurrah! We won the match!"

Sorrow: Alas! Oh no! Ouch! Examples: "Alas! He is dead."

Surprise: Oh! Ah! What! Examples: "Oh! What a beautiful flower!"

Greeting: Hello! Hi! Hey! Examples: "Hello! How are you?"

Attention: Look! Listen! Behold! Examples: "Look! A shooting star!"

Approval: Bravo! Well done! Examples: "Bravo! Excellent performance!"

Disgust: Ugh! Yuck! Eww! Examples: "Ugh! This tastes terrible!"

Punctuation with Interjections:

Strong emotion: Use exclamation mark (!) "Wow! That's amazing!" Mild emotion: Use comma (,) "Oh, I forgot my book." Position: Usually at beginning, Sometimes middle: "I, alas, failed the exam."

ENGLISH TENSES - COMPLETE GUIDE

1. Simple Future Tense

Formula:

Subject + will/shall + V1 + Object

Usage:

1. Future actions/events. 2. Predictions. 3. Spontaneous decisions. 4. With tomorrow, next week, next year, soon.

Examples:

Positive: I will play cricket tomorrow. He will study tonight. Negative: I will not play. He will not study. Question: Will you play? Will he study?

Hindi Meaning:

मैं कल क्रिकेट खेलूँगा। वह आज रात पढ़ेगा। (गा, गी)

2. Future Continuous Tense

Formula:

Subject + will/shall + be + V1+ing + Object

Usage:

1. Action in progress at specific time in future. 2. Future plans. 3. With at this time tomorrow, at 5 PM tomorrow.

Examples:

Positive: I will be playing cricket at 5 PM tomorrow. He will be studying at this time next week. Negative: I will not be playing. Question: Will you be playing? Will he be studying?

Hindi Meaning:

कल 5 बजे मैं क्रिकेट खेल रहा हूँगा। अगले हफ्ते इस समय वह पढ़ रहा होगा। (रहा होगा, रही होगी, रहे होंगे)

3. Future Perfect Tense

Formula:

Subject + will/shall + have + V3 + Object

Usage:

1. Action will be completed before specific future time. 2. With by tomorrow, by next week, by the time.

Examples:

Positive: I will have finished my work by 5 PM. He will have completed the project by tomorrow. Negative: I will not have finished. Question: Will you have finished? Will he have completed?

Hindi Meaning:

5 बजे तक मैं अपना काम पूरा कर चुका हूँगा। कल तक वह प्रोजेक्ट पूरा कर चुका होगा। (चुका होगा, चुकी होगी, चुके होंगे)

4. Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Formula:

Subject + will/shall + have + been + V1+ing + Object + for + time

Usage:

1. Duration of action till specific future time. 2. Emphasis on how long.

Examples:

Positive: I will have been studying for 3 hours by 6 PM. He will have been living here for 10 years next month. Negative: I will not have been studying. Question: Will you have been studying? How long will you have been working?

Hindi Meaning:

6 बजे तक मैं 3 घंटे से पढ़ रहा हूँगा। अगले महीने वह यहाँ 10 साल से रह रहा होगा।

Tense Usage Quick Reference

Time Signal Words	Tense to Use
always, every day, usually, often, sometimes, never	Simple Present
now, at present, at the moment, currently	Present Continuous
just, already, yet, ever, never, recently, so far	Present Perfect
since, for (with present result)	Present Perfect Continuous
yesterday, last week, ago, in 2020	Simple Past
when, while, at that time (past)	Past Continuous
before, after, already, by the time (past)	Past Perfect
tomorrow, next week, soon, in the future	Simple Future
at this time tomorrow, at 5 PM next week	Future Continuous
by tomorrow, by next month, by the time	Future Perfect

Common Tense Mistakes:

Wrong: "I am knowing the answer." ✗ Right: "I know the answer." ✓ (Stative verbs no continuous!). Wrong: "He is having a car." ✗ Right: "He has a car." ✓. Wrong: "I have finished before he came." ✗ Right: "I had finished before he came." ✓ (Past perfect for earlier action!). Wrong: "If I will see him, I will tell." ✗ Right: "If I see him, I will tell." ✓ (No will in if clause!)

HINDI VYAKARAN (हिंदी व्याकरण)

संज्ञा, सर्वनाम, विशेषण, क्रिया, लिंग, वचन, कारक

संज्ञा (Sangya) - Noun

परिभाषा और प्रकार

संज्ञा = किसी व्यक्ति, वस्तु, स्थान या भाव के नाम को संज्ञा कहते हैं।

संज्ञा के प्रकार:

1. व्यक्तिवाचक संज्ञा (Proper Noun): किसी विशेष व्यक्ति, स्थान या वस्तु का नाम। उदाहरण: राहुल, दिल्ली, गंगा, ताजमहल, सोमवार, जनवरी। विशेष: पहला अक्षर हमेशा बड़ा!

2. जातिवाचक संज्ञा (Common Noun): एक ही जाति की सभी वस्तुओं या व्यक्तियों का बोध। उदाहरण: लड़का, शहर, नदी, इमारत, दिन, महीना। किसी एक विशेष का नाम नहीं, पूरी जाति का!

3. भाववाचक संज्ञा (Abstract Noun): जिसे छू नहीं सकते, केवल महसूस कर सकते हैं। उदाहरण: प्रेम, ईमानदारी, बचपन, बुढ़ापा, सुंदरता, मिठास, खुशी, दुःख। बनाना: विशेषण से (सुंदर → सुंदरता), क्रिया से (खेलना → खेल), संज्ञा से (बच्चा → बचपन)।

4. समूहवाचक संज्ञा (Collective Noun): समूह का बोध कराने वाली। उदाहरण: कक्षा, परिवार, भीड़, सेना, दल, झुंड, गुच्छा।

5. द्रव्यवाचक संज्ञा (Material Noun): पदार्थ जिससे कुछ बनाया जाता है। उदाहरण: सोना, चांदी, पानी, दूध, लकड़ी, लोहा। गिनती नहीं होती!

लिंग (Ling) - Gender

लिंग के प्रकार:

पुल्लिंग (Masculine): लड़का, पिता, राजा, घोड़ा, सूरज, पहाड़, दिन। पहचान: आ, पन, पा की मात्रा वाले अक्सर पुल्लिंग। पहाड़, समुद्र, महीने, दिन अक्सर पुल्लिंग। धातु और रत्न (सोना, हीरा) पुल्लिंग।

स्त्रीलिंग (Feminine): लड़की, माता, रानी, घोड़ी, चाँद, नदी, रात। पहचान: ई, इया, नी, या, ता, वट की मात्रा। नदियाँ (गंगा, यमुना) स्त्रीलिंग। भाषाएँ (हिंदी, अंग्रेज़ी) स्त्रीलिंग। तारीखें स्त्रीलिंग।

पुल्लिंग से स्त्रीलिंग बनाना: लड़का → लड़की, बेटा → बेटी, राजा → रानी, शेर → शेरनी, लेखक → लेखिका।

वचन (Vachan) - Number

वचन के प्रकार:

एकवचन (Singular): एक का बोध। लड़का, किताब, गाय।

बहुवचन (Plural): एक से अधिक का बोध। लड़के, किताबें, गायें।

एकवचन से बहुवचन: आ को ए (लड़का → लड़के, कमरा → कमरे)। अंतिम स्वर के बाद एँ (किताब → किताबें, गाय → गायें)। इया को इयाँ (चिड़िया → चिड़ियाँ)। ई को इयाँ (नदी → नदियाँ, लड़की → लड़कियाँ)।

सर्वनाम (Sarvanam) - Pronoun

परिभाषा और प्रकार

सर्वनाम = संज्ञा के स्थान पर प्रयोग होने वाले शब्द। "पुनरुक्ति से बचाव!"

सर्वनाम के प्रकार:

1. पुरुषवाचक सर्वनाम (Personal): उत्तम पुरुष (बोलने वाला): मैं, हम। मध्यम पुरुष (सुनने वाला): तू, तुम, आप। अन्य पुरुष (जिसके बारे में बात): वह, वे, यह, ये।

2. निश्चयवाचक सर्वनाम (Demonstrative): निश्चित व्यक्ति या वस्तु की ओर संकेत। यह, वह, ये, वे। उदाहरण: यह मेरी किताब है। वह मेरा घर है।

3. अनिश्चयवाचक सर्वनाम (Indefinite): अनिश्चित व्यक्ति या वस्तु। कोई, कुछ। उदाहरण: कोई आ रहा है। कुछ खा लो।

4. संबंधवाचक सर्वनाम (Relative): संबंध जोड़ता है। जो-सो, जो-वह। उदाहरण: जो मेहनत करेगा, वह सफल होगा।

5. प्रश्नवाचक सर्वनाम (Interrogative): प्रश्न पूछने के लिए। कौन, क्या, किसका। उदाहरण: तुम कौन हो? यह क्या है?

6. निजवाचक सर्वनाम (Reflexive): अपने आप का बोध। आप, अपना, स्वयं, खुद। उदाहरण: मैं खुद जाऊंगा। वह अपना काम करता है।

सर्वनाम प्रयोग नियम:

आदर के लिए: एकवचन में भी बहुवचन (आप आइए, वे आ रहे हैं)। कारक चिह्नों के साथ रूप बदलते हैं: मैं → मुझे, तुम → तुम्हें, वह → उसे।

विशेषण (Visheshan) - Adjective

परिभाषा और प्रकार

विशेषण = संज्ञा या सर्वनाम की विशेषता बताने वाला शब्द।

विशेषण के प्रकार:

1. गुणवाचक विशेषण: गुण बताए। सुंदर, बुद्धिमान, ईमानदार, अच्छा, बुरा, मीठा, कड़वा, लाल, नीला। उदाहरण: सुंदर लड़की, बुद्धिमान छात्र।

2. संख्यावाचक विशेषण: संख्या बताए। निश्चित: एक, दो, तीन, पहला, दूसरा। अनिश्चित: कुछ, कई, अनेक, थोड़े, बहुत। उदाहरण: तीन किताबें, कुछ लोग।

3. परिमाणवाचक विशेषण: मात्रा बताए। निश्चित: एक किलो, दो लीटर, पांच मीटर। अनिश्चित: थोड़ा, बहुत, कम, अधिक, पर्याप्त। उदाहरण: थोड़ा पानी, बहुत दूध।

4. सार्वनामिक विशेषण: सर्वनाम जो विशेषण की तरह प्रयोग होते हैं। यह, वह, ये, वे, कोई, कुछ, कौन। उदाहरण: यह किताब, कोई आदमी।

5. व्यक्तिवाचक विशेषण: व्यक्तिवाचक संज्ञा से बना। भारतीय, जापानी, दिल्लीवासी, पंजाबी। उदाहरण: भारतीय संस्कृति।

विशेषण की अवस्थाएँ

मूलावस्था	उत्तरावस्था	उत्तमावस्था
सुंदर	अधिक सुंदर	सबसे सुंदर
बड़ा	और बड़ा / बड़ा से बड़ा	सबसे बड़ा
अच्छा	अधिक अच्छा / बेहतर	सबसे अच्छा / श्रेष्ठ

क्रिया (Kriya) - Verb

परिभाषा और प्रकार

क्रिया = कार्य या होने का बोध कराने वाला शब्द। "वाक्य की जान!"

क्रिया के प्रकार:

1. अकर्मक क्रिया (Intransitive): जिसे कर्म की जरूरत नहीं। रोना, सोना, हँसना, आना, जाना, दौड़ना। उदाहरण: बच्चा रोता है। (कर्म नहीं चाहिए!)

2. सकर्मक क्रिया (Transitive): जिसे कर्म की जरूरत है। खाना, पीना, लिखना, पढ़ना, देखना। उदाहरण: मैं खाना खाता हूँ। (क्या खाता हूँ? खाना = कर्म)

3. द्विकर्मक क्रिया: दो कर्म चाहिए। देना, सिखाना, बताना। उदाहरण: मैंने राहुल को किताब दी। (राहुल = कर्म 1, किताब = कर्म 2)

4. प्रेरणार्थक क्रिया: कोई दूसरा करवाता है। खाना → खिलाना, पीना → पिलाना, सोना → सुलाना। उदाहरण: माँ बच्चे को दूध पिलाती है।

5. संयुक्त क्रिया: दो क्रियाओं का मेल। जा रहा है, खा लिया, कर दिया, पढ़ रहा था।

6. नामधातु क्रिया: संज्ञा/विशेषण से बनी। हाथ → हथियाना, बात → बतियाना, गरम → गरमाना।

क्रिया के काल (Tenses)

तीन मुख्य काल:

1. वर्तमान काल (Present): अभी चल रहा या नियमित। मैं जाता हूँ। (साधारण), मैं जा रहा हूँ। (अपूर्ण), मैं गया हूँ। (पूर्ण), मैं जाता रहा हूँ। (संदिग्ध)।

2. भूतकाल (Past): बीत चुका समय। मैं गया। (साधारण), मैं जा रहा था। (अपूर्ण), मैं गया था। (पूर्ण), मैं गया होगा। (संदिग्ध)।

3. भविष्यत काल (Future): आने वाला समय। मैं जाऊँगा। (साधारण), मैं जाता रहूँगा। (अपूर्ण), मैं जा चुका होऊँगा। (पूर्ण)।

काल पहचानने के संकेत शब्द:

वर्तमान: है, हूँ, हैं, रहा है, रही है, रहे हैं। भूतकाल: था, थी, थे, गया, गई, गए। भविष्य: गा, गी, गे, होगा, होगी, होंगे।

कारक (Karak) - Case Relations

परिभाषा

कारक = संज्ञा या सर्वनाम का क्रिया के साथ संबंध। "विभक्ति चिह्नों से पहचान!"

कारक	विभक्ति चिह्न	उदाहरण
कर्ता (Nominative)	ने (भूतकाल में)	राम ने खाना खाया।
कर्म (Accusative)	को	मैंने राम को देखा।
करण (Instrumental)	से, के द्वारा	मैं पेन से लिखता हूँ।
संप्रदान (Dative)	को, के लिए	मैंने गरीब को पैसे दिए।
अपादान (Ablative)	से (अलग होना)	पेड़ से पत्ता गिरा।
संबंध (Genitive)	का, की, के	यह राम की किताब है।
अधिकरण (Locative)	में, पर	मेज पर किताब है।
संबोधन (Vocative)	हे, अरे, ओ	हे भगवान! अरे राम!

कारक पहचानने की टिप्स:

कर्ता: कौन? (Who does?). कर्म: किसको? क्या? (Whom? What?). करण: किससे? (By what means?). संप्रदान: किसके लिए? (For whom?). अपादान: किससे अलग? (Separated from?). संबंध: किसका? (Whose?). अधिकरण: कहाँ? (Where?). संबोधन: बुलावा! (Calling!)

समास (Samas) - Compound Words

परिभाषा और प्रकार

समास = दो या अधिक शब्दों का मेल जिससे नया शब्द बने। "विग्रह से पहचान!"

समास के मुख्य प्रकार:

1. अव्ययीभाव समास: पहला पद अव्यय (Indeclinable)। यथाशक्ति = शक्ति के अनुसार, आजन्म = जन्म से लेकर, प्रतिदिन = हर दिन, यथासमय = समय के अनुसार। पहचान: यथा, प्रति, आ, अनु, उप से शुरू।

2. तत्पुरुष समास: दूसरा पद प्रधान। राजपुत्र = राजा का पुत्र, देशभक्ति = देश के लिए भक्ति, जन्मदिन = जन्म का दिन। उपप्रकार: कर्म (गिरहकट), करण (रेखांकित), संप्रदान (देशभक्ति), अपादान (पथभ्रष्ट), संबंध (राजपुत्र), अधिकरण (आनंदमग्न)।

3. कर्मधारय समास: विशेषण-विशेष्य या उपमान-उपमेय। नीलकमल = नीला कमल, महापुरुष = महान पुरुष, चंद्रमुख = चंद्र के समान मुख। पहचान: पहला पद विशेषण या उपमान।

4. द्विगु समास: पहला पद संख्यावाचक। त्रिलोक = तीन लोकों का समूह, चौराहा = चार राहों का समूह, सप्ताह = सात दिनों का समूह, नवरात्र = नौ रातों का समूह।

5. द्वंद्व समास: दोनों पद प्रधान (और से जोड़ सकते हैं)। माता-पिता = माता और पिता, भाई-बहन = भाई और बहन, सुख-दुःख = सुख और दुःख, रात-दिन = रात और दिन।

6. बहुव्रीहि समास: दोनों पद मिलकर तीसरा अर्थ (जिसका, जिसमें)। चक्रपाणि = चक्र है पाणि (हाथ) में जिसके = विष्णु, लंबोदर = लंबा है उदर जिसका = गणेश, नीलकंठ = नीला है कंठ जिसका = शिव, त्रिनेत्र = तीन नेत्र हैं जिसके = शिव।

समास विग्रह टिप्स:

तत्पुरुष: कारक चिह्न आता है (का, के, की, से, के लिए, में)। कर्मधारय: विशेषण + संज्ञा OR समान। द्वंद्व: "और" लगा सकते हैं। बहुव्रीहि: "जिसका, जिसमें, जिसके" से विग्रह।

अलंकार (Alankar) - Figures of Speech

परिभाषा और प्रकार

अलंकार = काव्य को सुंदर बनाने वाले तत्व। "काव्य का श्रृंगार!"

मुख्य अलंकार:

1. अनुप्रास अलंकार: एक ही व्यंजन की बार-बार आवृत्ति। चारु चंद्र की चंचल किरणें। (च की आवृत्ति), कल कानन कुंडल मोर पखा। (क की आवृत्ति)

2. यमक अलंकार: एक शब्द बार-बार आए पर अर्थ अलग। काली घटा का घमंड घटा। (घटा = बादल, घटा = कम हुआ), मन का मनका मन ही माँझ। (मनका = मोती, मन = हृदय)

3. श्लेष अलंकार: एक शब्द के कई अर्थ। रहिमन पानी राखिये, बिन पानी सब शून्य। (पानी = जल, चमक, इज्जत - तीन अर्थ!)

4. उपमा अलंकार: दो वस्तुओं में समानता। पीपर पात सरिस मन डोला। (मन पीपल के पत्ते के समान डोला), मुख चंद्रमा के समान सुंदर है। सूत्र: उपमेय + उपमान + साधारण धर्म + उपमा वाचक शब्द (समान, सा, सी, से)।

5. रूपक अलंकार: उपमेय में उपमान का आरोप। चरण कमल बंदौ हरिराई। (चरण = कमल, सीधा कह दिया!), मैया मैं तो चंद्र-खिलौना लैहों। (चंद्र को खिलौना कहा)

6. उत्प्रेक्षा अलंकार: संभावना या कल्पना। मानो, मनु, जनु, जानो से पहचान। सखि सोहत गोपाल के, उर गुंजन की माल। (गुंजन की माला मानो शोभा दे रही है)

7. अतिशयोक्ति अलंकार: बढ़ा-चढ़ाकर वर्णन। हनुमान की पूँछ में लग न पाई आग। लंका सिगरी जल गई, गए निशाचर भाग।। (अति बढ़ा-चढ़ाकर!)

अलंकार पहचानने की ट्रिक:

एक वर्ण बार-बार = अनुप्रास। शब्द repeat पर अर्थ अलग = यमक। एक शब्द के कई अर्थ = श्लेष। "समान, सा, सी, से" = उपमा। सीधा "है" = रूपक। "मानो, जनु, मनु" = उत्प्रेक्षा। बहुत बढ़ा-चढ़ाकर = अतिशयोक्ति।

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